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§1. Recently, I had the opportunity to design and teach a senior seminar devoted to the topic of Beowulf and Medievalism. The senior seminar in my department is a theme-based course that culminates for students in a fifteen-page paper and a presentation to faculty. I assigned two translations of Beowulf in addition to several modern retellings in the form of novels. I was enthusiastic about my idea for a class that covered both Beowulf and Beowulf-inspired medievalism, but also a bit unsure about the effectiveness of teaching revisionist works alongside the great Old English epic. To my chagrin, I soon learned that some of my students did not initially share my excitement about the chosen topic for the seminar. On the first day of class, one student confessed to taking the course only because of a lack of other offerings that fit his schedule. At the beginning of the semester, several of the twelve students in the class confessed that they simply did not see the relevance of the Old English epic poem to their lives today. They were not familiar with the concept of medievalism and had not considered modern Beowulf revisions. Perhaps, I thought after those first few days of class, Beowulf, with his bravado and ruthlessness in battle, simply isn't a hero for our times. The monsters Grendel and his mother, however, just might be. At least, this is what my students ultimately concluded. By the end of the semester, they were converted to fans of both the original epic and the revisionist novels inspired by it. They found new perspectives for interpreting the text, particularly the roles of Grendel and his mother.

§2. In Medievalism: A Manifesto, Richard Utz makes a compelling case for bringing works of medievalism into the realm of scholarly discussion and into the classroom. Utz explains that "Within the overarching concept of medievalism, scholars may engage with medieval as well as postmedieval subjectivities not as a reductivist undertaking, but as an intellectually more complete, comparatist, and sophisticated endeavour" (2017, 87). Despite my initial trepidation about the course theme, I found that Utz's assessment is correct and applicable to revisionist versions of Beowulf. I have long been a proponent of bringing works of medievalism into my classroom not only to attract student interest in medieval literature, but also to bridge the vast gap in history that makes older works seem esoteric to many students. While I frequently teach a course on King Arthur that incorporates medievalism,¹ Beowulf posed more of a challenge as it is not frequently revisited in contemporary popular culture beyond occasional movie versions and a few comic series and novels.² However, I found several works that recreate Beowulf for contemporary audiences in intriguing ways. These works are John Gardner's Grendel (1971), Michael Crichton's Eaters of the Dead (1976), Susan Signe Morrison Grendel's Mother (2015), and Maria Dahvana Headley's The Mere Wife (2018), as well as her translation of the original text (2020). I assigned these texts because each of these authors creatively shifts both the purpose and focus of the Beowulf narrative while also retaining important aspects of the original.³ Thus, I saw in these works the potential to give my students insight into the reception of medieval texts and into modern culture. Further, they offered opportunity for analysis from various critical perspectives including, but not limited to, those listed by Utz in his Manifesto: "The most exciting new forms of engagement with medievalia in the last three decades have originated from the confluence of reception studies, feminism, women's studies, and medievalism studies" (2017, 82). To give my students a framework for understanding the value of these Beowulf revisions, I supplemented the reading list with critical readings,⁴ including selections from Utz's Manifesto (2017) and from Emery and Utz's Medievalism: Key Critical Terms (2014).

§3. Teaching an upper-level course on Beowulf is itself a challenge as instructors must contend with Old English language, the choices of translators, and the historical and cultural context of the original. Adding revisionist novels to the syllabus is even more challenging, yet, as I discovered, doing so can be an effective way of engaging students and helping them understand the relevance of the original text. While I frequently teach Beowulf in both a survey course and Early English literature course, I had never taught any of these modern revisions, and I was eager to do so. My first task, however, was to ensure that students had a thorough understanding of the cultural and literary context of the original poem. Fortunately, all of the students were familiar with Beowulf from high school courses or undergraduate survey courses. However, none had studied the text intensively.⁵ Thus, I began the semester with a close reading of the translated text. I prepared web video lectures on Old English culture and on the background of the Beowulf manuscript. Students viewed these lectures outside of class, freeing up time for in-class discussion. The class discussed salient themes in the original text, particularly the heroic code, the role of women, and the roles of the monsters. I assigned Seamus Heaney's facing-page translation (1999) alongside Maria Dahvana Headley's recent translation into contemporary bar-room talk (2020).⁶ These two translations share a liberal approach to Old English language and have markedly different tones. Both, in my opinion, capture certain aspects of the heroic code in ways that make it accessible and relevant to today's students.

§4. While the course did not entail intensive work with Old English language, the two translations provided an opportunity for discussions of how various translations can affect our reading of the original. The class examined how translators approached key terms that shaped our perception of character and plot. Pairing Heaney's and Headley's translations and reading them together aroused my students' curiosity about certain terms and phrases. I encouraged students to use the online Boswell-Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary so they could explore the original Old English terminology freely, and we worked together translating a few select passages of their choice. Immediately, my students noticed that Headley and Heaney had created very different portrayals of both Beowulf (an admirable warrior in Heaney's version and a "bro" in Headley's version) and the monsters. I brought in other translations to further the comparison, including those by Howell Chickering (2012) and Roy Liuzza (1999). Among other scholarly articles, I assigned J. R. R. Tolkien's seminal essay, "The Monsters and the Critics" (1936). My students concurred with Tolkien that "the monsters are essential" and "fundamentally tied to the underlying ideas of the poem" (1936, 246), and that the translator's semantic choices are key to how the monsters are perceived.

§5. From early discussions and readings, the students' collective interest in the monsters quickly became evident, as did their interest in the language used by translators to describe them. My students recognized that heroic literature typically depicts clear demarcations between good and evil. Accordingly, translators have traditionally chosen terminology that draws bold lines between Beowulf as hero and the monsters he confronts. For Heaney, Beowulf is "the mightiest man on earth,/ high-born and powerful" (ll. 196–197). Grendel, on the other hand, is a "God-cursed brute" (l. 121), "the Lord's outcast" (l. 169), "fiend" (l. 708), and "monster" (l. 814). Students were interested to learn that the term "monster" itself is of Anglo-Norman origins and does not appear in English, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, until the 14th-century. They questioned Heaney's choice to translate the original term āglæca as "monster" (l. 814) in reference to Grendel, yet as "fierce contenders" (l. 2592) to describe both Beowulf and the dragon as they battle. They noted that the term is also used in a variant form as āglæc-wyf (l. 1259) to describe Grendel's mother. Heaney translates the term in this context as "monstrous hell-bride," emphasizing the evil nature of Grendel's mother with the addition of the term "hell" affixed to the second element of the compound. Headley, on the other hand, translates the term far more positively as "warrior woman."

§6. Later in the semester, my students were intrigued to find that Maria Dahvana Headley discusses various translations of both āglæca and āglæc-wyf in the preface to her novel The Mere Wife, reflecting her intent to recast the narrative with the focus on Grendel's mother. She notes the discrepancies in how translators variously use the word negatively to describe Grendel and his mother, yet "it is used elsewhere in early English to refer both to Sigemund and the Venerable Bede" (2020, xxv). From such discussions of the original language and various translations, my students developed an appreciation for the power of the translator to mold the narrative. A student was inspired to write her final paper on the roles of scop and scribe who shaped the Beowulf narrative in its early forms. Translators and the authors of revisionist novels have this same power to shape, she argued, recasting the narrative, shifting the focus, and ensuring the relevance of the plot for contemporary audiences.

§7. Although one student wrote her final essay on the significance of the dragon to the narrative, the majority of my students were more interested in Grendel and his mother. They were eager to discuss how these monsters were portrayed in different translations and revisions, and in their relationship to humanity. The dragon might symbolically represent the greedy king, they observed, but it is removed from humankind, whereas Grendel and his mother are of quasi-human status. As descendants of Cain, they are part human, and as such, they are more relatable than the dragon. The original text gives some incentive for the modern, fully humanized portrayals that we read later in the semester. For instance, the original language makes clear that Grendel's motivation to raid Heorot is the noise of the meadhall: "hlūdne in healle" (l. 89) Heaney translates the full passage thus: "It harrowed him / To hear the din of the loud banquet / every day in the hall" (ll. 86–88). That Grendel is disturbed by the sounds from the Heorot mead hall intimates his disgruntlement and exclusion. It paves the way for more sympathetic modern retellings, such as the exiled and disinherited Grendel in Morrison's novel and the isolated young Gren of Headley's The Mere Wife.

§8. Reading Heaney's and Headley's translations side by side also opened up the interpretation of Grendel's mother. Unlike Heaney's, Headley's translation portrays Grendel's mother with some compassion and casts a skeptical eye on the actions of the hero. In Headley's translation, Grendel's mother is no longer a bloodthirsty "hell-bride" who, though "grief-racked," is "desperate for revenge." Rather, she is presented as an exiled "warrior woman" (l. 1258) who is "crazed with sorrow" (l. 1275) over the death of her son and seeks recompense, "someone to pay in pain for her heart's loss" (ll. 1276–1277).

§9. Her response to Grendel's death displays the problematic nature of the heroic code itself. Because Grendel has killed first and will not pay wergild, the Danes have the legal right to exact vengeance. Women are allowed no active role in this system of justice. Whereas elsewhere in Beowulf women are relegated to grieving at funerals after such acts of violence, Grendel's mother takes rebellious action, pursuing vengeance beyond the limits of the Danish system of justice. Nonetheless, Headley's choice of language in her description of Grendel's mother alters the traditional reading of her as the embodiment of evil. Rather, Headley explains, "she behaves like a bereaved mother who happens to have a warrior's skill" (2020, xxv). Headley's translation led to my students largely exonerating Grendel's mother, noting that she was merely seeking retribution for the death of her son, an act that, had she been male, would be outside the boundaries of the heroic code, but more understandable in a society governed by male vengeance. Headley points out this double standard in the preface of her translation: "early English feud rules allow blood for blood" (2020, xxxvii). By her act of vengeance, Grendel's mother assumes the role of a male warrior, and for this act, she is rendered "monstrous" by most translators. More than her heritage and misshapen appearance, my students argued, this typically masculine behavior accounts for her status as a monster.⁷

§10. Headley's translation also makes alterations to the typical portrayal of Grendel by making some allowances for his human qualities. She describes him as a "warrior" (l. 720) rather than monster, fiend, or demon. Thus, she casts him more as an equal of Beowulf and his companions. She not only minimizes language that depicts him as evil, but she also casts him as victim. He is, for Headley, a "woe walker/ unlucky, fucked by fate" (ll. 101–102). Further, her recasting of the language into bar-room talk and her portrayal of Beowulf and his companions casts them in a different light. My students found Headley's Geats and their leader to be more repulsive than admirable. Much like Heaney, Headley describes Beowulf himself as "a warrior / like no other: massive, mighty, born of noble blood" (ll. 194–196), yet she prefaces this description with the lead-in "Bro," a choice that, for my students, upends Beowulf's status as worthy. His banter with Unferth, too, is amplified and recontextualizes him as an example of toxic masculinity. For instance, Beowulf boasts that "I'm the strongest and the boldest, and the bravest and the best" (l. 416). He goes on to proclaim, "Anyone who fucks with the Geats? Bro, they have to fuck / with me" (ll. 421–422). Perhaps Headley's translation accounts for the fact that my students recognized Beowulf as a sort of superhero whose actions are overblown, more in the vein of Marvel's Thor than the more humble Spiderman. I brought to class an issue of DC Comics's Beowulf Dragon Slayer. Although we did not consider the comic series in detail, students were assigned Ferrari's article, "Looking at the hero: Beowulf and graphic novels in the 21st Century" (2017).⁸ My students were intrigued by the bravado of the original Beowulf and his portrayal in comics and graphic novels as hyper-masculine. In fact, a student chose the topic of toxic masculinity as focus for her final essay. She was inspired to look at "both the implicit and explicit links between Beowulf's heroic code, superhero culture, and the double standards plaguing women characters in both."

§11. Throughout the semester, my students' responses to traditional depictions of the heroic characters surprised me and prompted me to introduce criticism that would encourage them to develop their thoughts about heroes and monsters. Thus, we considered Jeffrey Jerome Cohen's "Monster Culture (Seven Theses)," (1996) which provided a framework for students to consider the cultural significance of the Beowulf monsters. I also assigned selections from Tim Flight's Monsters in the Anglo-Saxon World: Basilisks and Beowulf. Both texts shaped my students' ideas about how the original text defines monsters. Flight views the traditional hero Beowulf in the context of monsters, observing that "On the basis of his size and sheer physical power, Beowulf is indubitably a monster" (2021, 211). Like Grendel, Beowulf is a "deadly force," and "only Beowulf and the Grendelkin are able to move between the civilized splendour of Heorot and the wilderness of the mere" (2021, 210). As a student noted in her final paper, both Grendel and Beowulf each kill numerous men: "Throughout the story, one watches as Grendel makes his way into the kingdom of Heorot and slaughters countless innocent men…. However, the roles are reversed when Beowulf kills a similar number and is praised." The difference, she concluded, is that the hero is portrayed through the lens of the heroic code, and the monsters are condemned for refusing to abide by it.

§12. Both translators emphasize Hrothgar's frustration with Grendel's refusal to pay wergild in recompense for his crimes. Heaney's translation emphasizes that "he would never/ parley or make peace with any Dane/ nor stop his death-dealing nor pay the death-price" (ll. 154–156). Headley similarly translates this passage: "The old counselors knew better/ than to expect a settlement in silver from him." Headley's version, with its emphasis on the overblown bravado of the Geats, led my students to call out ways in which the heroic code itself is problematic, certainly by today's standards, but also within the context of early Scandinavian society. I explained the role of flyting, yet my students mostly concurred that, even in Heaney's version, Beowulf's bravado crossed the line and might be illustrative of ofermod (arrogance). All of the modern revisions we read reinforced this less-than-favorable view of the hero, and most of the readings enhanced their opinions of Grendel and his mother.

§13. Whereas the original text of Beowulf establishes that Grendel, a descendant of Cain, is part human, it isn't until John Gardner's 1971 novel that Grendel is cast as a thinking, feeling protagonist whom many readers find fully sympathetic. Jennifer Kelso Farrell describes the modern fascination with Grendel as sparked by Gardner: "In the twenty-first century, we remember Beowulf; but more importantly, we remember Grendel. Of the two, Grendel appears most frequently in popular culture and continually evolves through the decades as society needs him" (2008, 934). She explains that, for modern readers, "the hero/good villain/bad set-up is too simple" (Farrell 2008, 937), and Gardner complicates this set-up. While my students had some compassion for the Grendel of Heaney's and Headley's translations, they found Gardner's Grendel to be angsty, amusing, and likable. One student described him as "a monster who really just wants to be a philosophy major." In a 1980 interview with Ed Christian, Gardner claimed that he did not set out to cast Grendel as a relatable character. Rather, in order to "make him an interesting character" (80), his portrayal of Grendel became increasingly sympathetic. Certainly, my students' reactions confirm that Gardner succeeded in creating an interesting and sympathetic version.

§14. Gardner's text prompted my students to reconsider Grendel's portrayal in the original text. Scholars have long pointed out that Grendel's status as descendent of Cain is evidence of an inherently evil nature.⁹ My students, however, were focused on Grendel's humanity. As a descendent of Cain, Grendel is partly human. Thus, he might be capable of human thought and emotion and must not be dismissed as pure evil. They went so far as to explain his attacks as possibly justified rather than unprovoked, since, after all, Grendel, his mother, and their ancestors likely occupied the Geatish land longer than Hrothgar's people, the latter who occupy and then devastate the landscape with the building of Heorot. My students drew these conclusions on their own and thus were fascinated to read Adam Miyashiro's "Homeland insecurity: Biopolitics and sovereign violence in Beowulf," which draws similar conclusions: Miyashiro argues that Grendel and his mother are proto-Indigenous inhabitants of Hrothgar's land who threaten Danish sovereignty (2020). Our reading of Tim Flight's Basilisks and Beowulf also influenced their belief that Grendel and his mother were justified in their actions. Flight writes about the role of wilderness in Beowulf: "The horror of Beowulf…to an Anglo-Saxon audience" he maintains, "is that the rightful inhabitants of the uncivilized mere do not stay where they are supposed to" (2021, 178).¹⁰ Grendel and his mother are exiles, banished from civilization and deserving of some sympathy, my students concluded.

§15. To counter my student's compassionate view of Grendel, I also assigned Norma L. Hutman's "Even Monsters Have Mothers: A Study of Beowulf" and John Gardner's Grendel." Hutman argues that Gardner's Grendel "defines monster" because he denies causality (1975, 31), thereby separating himself from Man. My students, however, maintained their view that Gardner's deeply contemplative Grendel is a tragic hero who might be capable of redemption. Gardner's focus on philosophy piqued my students' interest. In his interview with Christian, Gardner described the existential nature of his protagonist, whom he saw as "symbolic of the rational soul gone perverse" (1980, 81). My students' interest in Gardner's use of philosophical thought paved the way for our reading of Craig J. Stromme's "The Twelve Chapters of Grendel" (1975). Stromme connects each of the chapters of the novel to a modern philosophical movement or approach that illustrates how Grendel grapples to define his own place in the universe and to distinguish between good and evil.¹¹ This article confirmed, for my students, Grendel's status as a thinking, feeling being.

§16. Although Gardner's Grendel was relatable to my students, they were disturbed by his misogynistic depiction of Grendel's mother. While Gardner casts Grendel as the protagonist (though not necessarily hero), his portrayal of Grendel's mother is particularly harsh. She is reduced to an amorphous being who has lost all ability to speak. Gardner's Grendel observes her with disgust: "She whispered one sound: Dool-dool! Dool-dool!, scratching at her bosom, a ghastly attempt to climb back up to speech" (1971, 56). My students noted that they felt some compassion for her feeble attempts to communicate with and show love for her son, and they were disappointed at the extent to which Gardner dehumanized her. They saw her as a victim of Geatish occupation, but they did not find her relatable. Students were also surprised by Gardner's negative portrayal of Beowulf. They argued that Gardner's version of Beowulf presents him as a killer whose single-minded violent actions, especially when viewed outside the context of the heroic code, might themselves be monstrous. Gardner's Beowulf straddles the limits of humanity with his superhuman strength and (arguably) overblown bravado. He is devoid of the philosophical speculation that plagues but humanizes Gardner's Grendel. Beowulf, however, does impress Grendel, who is awed to have finally met his physical equal. He observes that Beowulf's "arms were like beams….He was dangerous. And yet I was excited, suddenly alive" (1971, 155). Grendel finally finds a way out of his existential angst by encountering a worthy physical opponent (although his battle with Beowulf is, as Gardner describes it in an interview, suicidal)¹² . Unlike the contemplative Grendel, Beowulf is sheer strength, a killing machine who whispers words of destruction as he brings Grendel to his end.

§17. In our next reading, Michael Crichton's 1976 novel Eaters of the Dead, all of the Beowulf characters are murderous and uncivilized. This novel was written primarily to thrill; Crichton's purpose was to refute a colleague's claim that Beowulf is boring. He set out to transform it into an adventure tale that would keep readers on the edge of their seats. Crichton explains, "I argued that Beowulf was a dramatic, exciting story—and that I could prove it" (1992, 270). He created a fictionalized account of (actual historical figure) Ahmad ibn Fadlan, who finds himself along on Beowulf's (Buliwuf's) journey to slay the monster "Grendel," a band of cannibals in this revision. The book takes the form of a faux academic study. It was subsequently made into a movie called The Thirteenth Warrior.

§18. This reading was not a class favorite (nor was the film version, which some students watched outside of class). However, it did inspire some interesting discussions about how far writers might stray from their sources. Had Crichton veered so far from the original narrative that his work could no longer be classified as a reworking of the original? The implausible scenario, that "Grendel" is a prehistoric tribe of cannibals, delivers exactly what Crichton promises: an adventure story that is anything but boring. While there is no compassion here for the monsters, the text casts a harsh light on heroic culture through the eyes of Ahmad ibn Fadlan. As the narrative unfolds, he finds himself eventually admiring the men whom he has joined and actively participating in the culture that initially repulsed him. My students, however, were not impressed with the early Germanic warriors (cast as Vikings in this novel) depicted in the novel. They were appalled by the scenes of murder and rape performed by Buliwuf and his men. Whereas in previous courses (including my own sophomore-level survey course for some students), they had approached Beowulf as an idealized heroic warrior, Headley's portrayal of him as a "bro," Gardner's portrayal of him as a killing machine, and now Crichton's portrayal of him as a leader of brutish warriors gave them pause. By whose standards, my students pondered, is Beowulf the hero and Grendel the monster?

§19. Crichton's novel opened the door for other interesting discussions, as well, including debate about cultural perspectives and about academic writing. Ahmad ibn Fadlan's varying fascination and disgust with Buliwuf and his men make clear the subjectivity with which we view our own culture. Whereas my students typically approach Old English literature from a perspective that focuses on positive aspects of the heroic code, Crichton's Ahmad ibn Fadlan casts a critical eye on the culture that reveals the brutality of the heroic warrior. Crichton also encourages an objective view of academia. He parodies academic studies, specifically our approach to ancient texts, by casting his novel as a pseudo-historical academic work. By doing so, he inspired my students to think about the way academia presents itself. The pseudo-serious tone of Crichton's faux research led students to recall Utz's condemnation of pastist medieval studies as "inaccessible…to larger audiences" (2017, 83). The text uses copious footnotes throughout and includes an appendix to lend authority to the narrative, yet also mocks academic studies by applying critical apparatus to a fictional account. Simply put, Crichton places the tools of academic research into a popular thriller that intermingles real and fictional elements. My students were both amused and informed by David Lonergan's "Fooling LC" (1998), an account of the frequent misclassification of Crichton's novel as history rather than fiction. Crichton opens up the field of medievalism by bringing the (mock but convincing) methodology of medieval scholars to a broader audience that includes casual readers in search of an adventure story.

§20. Whereas Crichton's novel might be classified as pseudo-historical pulp fiction intended for general audiences, our next reading, Susan Signe Morrison's 2015 novel Grendel's Mother, is esteemed by scholars and is rooted in a firm historical knowledge of Old English culture and literature. Scholars have acclaimed this novel for its many allusions to other Old English works, especially works that portray the roles of women, such as Wulf and Eadwacer, The Wife's Lament, and various charms and riddles.¹³ Whereas Crichton's Buliwuf remains the hero of the story (albeit depicted through the eyes of Ahmad ibn Fadlan), Morrison turns the narrative, as her title indicates, so that Grendel's mother, fully human, is the hero. Her son Grendel is depicted favorably as a gentle soul who becomes an effective warrior out of necessity. Beowulf, in her version, is depicted unfavorably. He is a liar who attacks while Grendel and his lover are in bed (Grendel's lover is his half-sister Freawaru). Later, Beowulf's prowess is reduced to cowardice and lies when he falsely claims to have killed Brymhild. Ultimately, Brymhild emasculates him with a curse. Oh, how the mighty hero has fallen in Morrison's account!

§21. Despite her sharp departure from the original plot, Morrison's account of the narrative is in many ways accurate and certainly informative. Morrison gives her characters rich backstories that intersect with Christian, Old Norse, and Old English literature and lore. As an infant, Brymhild is washed up on the shores of Denmark and taken in by the Geats. When she comes of age, she is sent to court where she meets and eventually marries King Hrothgar. The marriage is ruined once the secret of her heritage is discovered: she descends from a Christian tribe that was raided by the Danes. Hrothgar is in fact Brymhild's biological father who raped her mother during the attack. Brymhild and her son are exiled once her birthright is discovered, and their son must fight for his rightful inheritance to the throne. Though not a monster, Grendel's stealth and effectiveness in exacting bloody vengeance on his father's people strike fear similar to that of the monster Grendel in the original text.

§22. Although Grendel's attempt to reclaim his birthright is an important element of the plot, Morrison's main emphases are on the roles of women and the conflict of religions as Christianity begins to make its impact on the still-pagan Germanic tribes. Brymhild herself represents an integration between the old ways of the Scandinavian/Germanic tribes who raised her, and early Christianity, the religion of her birthright. Morrison artfully depicts how the transition might have occurred as Germanic tribes were first exposed to Christian tenets. Thus, though she alters the Beowulf narrative significantly, Morrison's novel is a close representation of what scholars believe to be true about Old English society. Her novel demonstrates that works of medievalism might become tools for understanding medieval culture. She weaves into her text allusions and even accounts of other Old English works. For instance, when Brymhild becomes a healer, she uses many of the charms and remedies from Bald's Leechbook. Morrison's use of the corpus of Old English literature is frequent and rich, including, among other works and references, Old English riddles, Icelandic sagas, elegies Wulf and The Wife's Lament, and religious figures such as Coifi.¹⁴ Stylistically, too, Morrison captures the flavor of the original. She makes linguistic and stylistic choices that echo those of the original text. For instance, in the opening lines of her novel, Morrison includes a string of alliterative kennings to describe Scyld Scefing, who "was no sister-hater, kin-killer. He was a king-counselor, hero-helper" (2015, 11).

§23. Foremost, Morrison alters the story to bring forward the significant role of women in early Germanic society. She shows how women, though not warriors, were integral to the heroic code. For instance, she brings to life for modern readers the predicament of the peaceweaver. When Grendel attacks Hrothgar's hall, Freawaru discovers the carnage. She is pulled away by her mother, who proclaims, "This is man's business" (2015, 133). But Freawaru thinks to herself, "Surely, this is woman's business, too. We are the ones married off as peaceweaving brides after the blood and gore have barely dried" (2015, 133). Morrison expands on the role of woman beyond that of peaceweaver. Brymhild's role evolves at each stage of her life. As a child, Brymhild's adoptive mother and aunt teach her the art of healing. Once she comes of age, she is sent to court, where she learns the duties associated with diplomacy. Once Hrothgar falls in love with and marries her, she assumes the role of queen and deftly handles the politics of her husband's hall. Even when exiled, Brymhild finds a role in society, becoming a valued healer to the community and a mourner for those who pass away. For my students, this work was critical in helping them recontextualize Old English literature and envision other ways Grendel and his mother might be perceived. It provided them with a backstory for both Old English literature and culture.

§24. Unlike Morrison's close depiction of Old English society, our final reading, Maria Dahvana Headley's The Mere Wife (2018), jettisons the narrative into current times. This novel, the class favorite, transplants Beowulf into contemporary, suburban America. In Headley's version, both Grendel's mother (Dana Mills, a Black woman) and Beowulf (Ben Woolf, a white man) are American war veterans. Dana is traumatized by her experiences in the war in the Middle East and has only a hazy memory of the horrific events that befell her, including a mock beheading and an apparent rape that leaves her impregnated. When she is returned to the States, she is placed in a mental hospital where she is accused and questioned more than cared for. Victimized by a system that refuses to recognize her sacrifices, Dana escapes from the hospital and settles in a mountain cave on the outskirts of her old neighborhood, which has been gentrified and is now a gated community called Herot. She gives birth to and raises her son, Gren, off the grid, deep in the caves of the mountain. As Gren gets older, he sees the community below the mountainside and is taken with the son of the Herot patriarch, a boy named Dylan. The two boys meet and spend time together, at first without their parents' noticing. Eventually, they are discovered, at first by Dylan's mother, Willa (Wealtheow, a white woman), herself a victim of society as she struggles to live up to the expectations of her upper-crust gated community. Willa believes that Gren is a monster and calls the local police officer, Ben Woolf (Beowulf), a middle-aged war vet with a thirst for battle. In Headley's novel, Beowulf is, as my students described him, an overzealous, frustrated "gym bro." As in the original text, an epic battle ensues when he sets his sights on defeating the "monsters," the child Gren and his mother, Dana.

§25. Writing at the beginning of the Trump era, Headley saw the original Beowulf text as a metaphor for our times. She uses the Beowulf narrative to highlight questions about racism, the treatment of war veterans, the pressures on American women, police brutality, and many other contemporary issues. As Tobias Carroll describes it, "In The Mere Wife, Headley finds an ideal balance between the accumulated weight of old stories and the contemporary issues keeping some people awake at night" (2018, 37). Like Morrison, Headley puts the female characters in the center of the story and transforms Grendel's mother into the protagonist. Carroll explains "though the original story of Beowulf is largely framed as the story of two men, Headley has centered her retelling around a pair of women, and in doing so questions exactly what makes a hero heroic and what makes a monster monstrous" (2018, 37).

§26. Both Headley's and Morrison's novels show keen interest in mother and child relationships, and my students discussed how motherhood was one way early Germanic women could attain some degree of power. These revisionist novels prompted several students to research the significance of women in the original text, and in particular the role of early Germanic women as mothers. For Headley, the significance of motherhood is crystallized in the relationships between Dana Mills and her son, Gren, and that of Willa and her son Dylan. As previously mentioned, Headley provides translations in the preface of the novel for the terms āglæca (fighter, warrior, hero) and āglæc-wyf (wretch, monster, hell-bride, hag). In doing so, she prepares the reader for a work that questions the ways we treat our war heroes and the way we tend to label "others," reducing them to monstrosity rather than recognizing our own culpability. We see Headley's critique drawn out as Willa "others" Dana (in her eyes, a homeless Black woman rather than a war hero) and struggles to dehumanize Gren (a clawed monster rather than a child). Although Willa's intention is to protect her own son from harm, her position of privilege clouds her view from the unpleasant realities of the mother and son who live in poverty just outside her gated community.

§27. Despite its contemporary setting, my students agreed that Headley's novel is still recognizably the Beowulf narrative. Though less obviously, she, like Morrison, incorporates some of the stylistic devices and even word choices found in the original text. Notable is her use of the Old English term "hwaet," the much-debated opening word of the original manuscript. Headley places translations of this term at the opening of each chapter. My class read this novel at the end of the semester, and Headley's playful use of this term brought the class discussion back to the various translations of it and its significance in the original text.¹⁵ True to conventional translations of the term, Headley interprets "hwaet" variously in her novel as "listen," "so," "what," "attend," "sing," and "ah." In each instance, the interpretation of the term is shaped to fit the narrative. For example, the novel's opening lines are narrated from the perspective of Nature itself as Dana's mountainside refuge urges the reader to "Listen….there's a baby born inside the mountain" (2020, 14). Chapter Seven introduces the overbearing mothers who dominate both Willa and the Herot community. This chapter opens with Willa's mother declaring "So?" when Willa calls in this "council of war" (2020, 52) for advice on the perceived monster (Gren) that has invaded her home. Here, the term emphasizes the overbearing nature of this "army" of mothers and Willa's helplessness against them. The question "What have I done?" (2020, 115) opens Chapter Fifteen. Here, Dana is horrified to realize that, in trying to rescue Gren from his invasion of a Christmas party at Herot, she has inadvertently left him there following a skirmish. Thus, Headley deftly weaves the opening word of the original narrative into her revisionist novel, and in doing so, she creates a compelling and relevant critique of our current society.

§28. By the end of the semester, my students appreciated the continued relevance of the Beowulf narrative as it is kept alive not only through scholarly translations, but also through retellings that alter the text for new generations of readers. Once they recognized the continued relevance of the Beowulf narrative, my students looked for other ways the text might serve as commentary for today's society. For instance, one student compared Grendel in Gardner's text to the Columbine killers. Like these modern-day killers, the student argued, Grendel and his mother might be seen as products of their society: "The violence of Hrothgar's Danes in Gardner's Grendel reflects that not only are we capable of the same acts of violence as those we vilify, we are responsible for creating the society that creates people who are like this." In her essay on ecocriticism, another student concluded that "The attitudes toward nature that are reflected in Old English literature like Beowulf affect our current environmental crisis because these attitudes have seeped into our culture in the same way that the heroic values of this poem have transformed our own. They reflect our inability to relate to and appreciate non-human elements of nature, which should have value even in "monstrous" forms."

§29. My students also looked beyond the revisionist novels to find other ways the narrative has infiltrated today's popular culture. In addition to the previously-discussed paper on the Marvel franchise, another student brought into the conversation the topic of gaming as a viable form of revisionist narrative. This student noticed the similarities between Beowulf and The Legend of Zelda video game early in the semester but initially questioned whether video games, his childhood passion, might be brought into a serious scholarly discussion. He was delighted to learn about the growing body of scholarship in medievalism that focuses on gaming and includes Beowulf-influenced games such as Skyrim.¹⁶ Upon reading some of this scholarship, he recognized the validity of expanding the canon to include gaming. He concluded, "it would be irresponsible of literary critics to deny that videogames are worthy of being integrated into the conversation. There is an entire wellspring of video game narratives out there just waiting for us to sink our claws and fangs into, much like Grendel – and perhaps it is now more than ever our time to venture out into that vast, wild unknown, at long last." In his final paper, this student made a compelling argument that The Legend of Zelda, whose creators were heavily influenced by Tolkien, might also be considered a Beowulf revision.

§30. By the end of the semester, my students understood that the Beowulf narrative is both mimetic and transformative.¹⁷ The story continues to be told and retold; shaped and reshaped. Beowulf might be the hero in one context, but his bravado might be toxic in another. Grendel might be a monster in one context, but a victim in another. Grendel's mother might be a hell-hound in one context, but a healer or warrior in another. My students appreciated the power of translators to shift the narrative subtly through word choice. They also recognized the significance of works of medievalism, specifically revisionist novels, that offer new perspectives on familiar works by altering them in creative and sometimes drastic ways. I was fortunate to have a group of highly-motivated students, and I learned much from their inquisitiveness and willingness to reconsider their initial reservations about the seminar topic. Student comments in course evaluations confirmed the success of the class. One student wrote, "[This class] sincerely gave me an entirely new perspective on this work and this time period, and I am incredibly grateful." Teaching this class affirmed for me the value of bringing works of medievalism into a course on Beowulf. More importantly, it also reinforced for me the potential value in student readings of canonical texts. I learned that following through with students' interpretations rather than dismissing them not only serves to engage the students, but also, as Utz claims in his Manifesto, makes way for "a more truly co-disciplinary, inclusive, democratic, and humanistic engagement with what we call, for better or worse, the Middle Ages" (2017, 87).

Notes

1. At my university, English 2100, a sophomore-level course, is theme-based. My theme is King Arthur: Through the Ages and Across Cultures. I have had much success with this course, which incorporates modern works influenced by Arthurian themes, including the Harry Potter novels and A Song of Ice and Fire. We also look at Arthurian themes in music, art, and politics. [Back]

2. While the chivalric code has long been a popular theme in works of medievalism, the heroic code receives less attention. Consider, for example, the many reworkings of Arthurian themes including, most recently, David Lowery's 2021 film The Green Knight. [Back]

3. Other revisionist Beowulf novels that I considered but could not add due to the time restrictions of the semester: W. H. Canaway's 1958 The Ring-givers, Steven Barnes, Jerry Pournelle and Larry Niven's 1987 The Heorot Series, and Frank Schaefer's 1996 novel, Whose Song is Sung. [Back]

4. For the critical readings, I used the learning platform Perusall which allows students to with the readings and with one another. My selection of critical readings was in large part shaped by student discussions. [Back]

5. I teach an Early English Literature course, a course in which I devote substantial attention to Beowulf. However, none of the students in the senior seminar had taken it. [Back]

6. To introduce them to these translations, I assigned two reviews. Students read Howell Chickering's review of Heaney's translation (2002). This article oriented them to issues of translation and to the distinctions of Heaney's version. They also read Ruth Franklin's review of Headley's translation (2020). [Back]

7. Many scholars have written on the masculine behavior of Grendel's mother. I assigned Renee R. Trilling's. "Beyond abjection: the problem with Grendel's mother again" (2007). I also recommended Jane Chance's Woman as Hero in Old English Literature, and Shari Horner's The Discourse of Enclosure: Representing Women in Old English Literature. Chance describes Grendel's mother as a "tribeless queen or lady" (1986, 102). She explains that she is an "antitype of the peace-weaving queen [who] behaves like a king, using the sword to rid her halls of intruders or unwanted 'hall guests'" (1986, 106). Horner describes her as "undoubtedly the least enclosed woman in Old English literature" (2001, 81) because of her masculine actions. [Back]

8. Ferrari describes Beowulf's appearance in comics and graphic novels, focusing on those attributes that align Beowulf with modern notions of the superhero. [Back]

9. Dorothy Whitelock was one of the earliest scholars to explore the significance of Beowulf as a work intended for Christians. The association with Cain, she argued, confirmed Grendel's role as evil (1951). More recently, Fidel Fajardo‐Acosta draws the same conclusion about Grendel as evil, arguing that he shares traits with the Old English Christian version of Satan (1992). [Back]

10. Flight's intent is not to elicit sympathy for Grendel, but rather to note his connection to humanity. Flight writes, "the most disturbing thing about Grendel, to both Old English and modern audiences, is his humanity" (2021, 184). [Back]

11. About the twelve chapters of the novel, Gardner claimed that he "wanted twelve chapters, for the zodiac houses. I wanted Grendel to be a creature in determinism by his own nature" (Christian 1980, 80). [Back]

12. Gardner explains: "What, to my surprise, happened in Grendel is that Grendel, at the moment he becomes most ferocious, also longs most for death" (Christian 1980, 80). [Back]

13. See Morrison's website for a full list of acclamations from fellow medievalists and also a list of awards for this novel. [Back]

14. For interested students who had little experience with these works of Old English literature, I provided a link to the Old English Poetry Project. [Back]

15. In the preface to his translation, Heaney explains that he chooses "so," a Hiberno-English idiom, "that operates as an expression that obliterates all previous and narratives, and at the same time functions as an exclamation calling for immediate attention" (1999, xxvii). Headley's choice of "Bro!" in her translation paves the way for the contemporary tone of her translation. [Back]

16. For instance, this student read Eric Hayot's "Video Games & the Novel" (2021). Another influential article for his paper was Kevin and Brian Moberly's "Neomedievalism, hyperrealism, and simulation" (2010). [Back]

17. I use the terms "mimetic and transformative" with Philip Jackson's Life in Classrooms (1968). This work is esteemed by scholars of educational philosophy. As a medievalist, I also have in mind Eric Aurbach's work Mimesis. My sense of the term "mimesis" embraces both the ways literature and art intersect with lived experiences, and also the ways literary tropes and themes are diachronically reproduced. [Back]

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